Teacljit)^ of 
Literature 

pCxtell 





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Class 
Book. 



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Gopyriglitl^^ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



THE TEACHING 



OF 



LITERATURE 



BY 

ULYSSES F. AXTELL 

u 

Head of Department of English in the Cortland 
State Normal School 




SYRACUSE. N. Y. 
C. W. BARDEEN. PUBLISHER 



Copyright, 1915. by C. W. Bardeen 



s^ 



V'^V 



JUL 28 (915 
©CJ.A410027 



To the memory of my mother 



PREFACE 

This book is simply an applica- 
tion of the principles and spirit of 
the course given by Prof. William 
H. Crawshaw of Colgate University 
while the author was a student in 
that institution. The author's only 
solicitude is that his great teacher 
shall not be charged with any of the 
weaknesses that may be found in 
this work. 

To Prof. Alexander J. Inglis of 
Harvard University the author is 
indebted for much helpful advice 
and criticism. 

Prof. R. Elliot Owens of Cortland 
Normal School has given most ef- 

(7) 



8 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

ficient help by thoroughly reviewing 
and criticising the whole manuscript. 
The author's theories have been 
modified and completed by the writ- 
ings of such critics as Winchester, 
Warsfold, Bates, St edman, Hudson, 
Corson, Carlyle and Poe. Various 
writers on the teaching of literature 
have furnished indispensable sug- 
gestions. Among such writers spe- 
cial mention should be made of 
Prof. Chubb and Dr. Charles A. 
McMurry. 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

Introduction 

The following outlines are not designed 

to be dictatorial nor inflexible, although 

the degree to which they are specific may 

seem to indicate that they are so intended. 

They are planned to show many things 

that may be done. Doubtless many other 

things, as for instance dramatizing, may 

be done to great advantage. But the 

helplessness with which young teachers 

face the necessity of teaching literature; 
(9) 



10 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

their frequent lack of insight, resourceful- 
ness, and systematic methods of pro- 
cedure, seem to warrant the offering 
of somewhat definite outlines for the prepa- 
ration and teaching of a literary master- 
piece. However, the outlines are given 
with the understanding that it is each 
teacher's duty ultimately to work out a 
method of his or her own. Natiurally the 
resourceful teacher will vary and abbrevi- 
ate these methods to suit the selection 
and the circumstances under which it is 
being taught. The outlines are to be 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 11 

used only so far as they naturally apply. 
Do not force them. 

Finally too much emphasis cannot be 
laid upon the following words of warning. 
Thoroughness, a word so valuable in most 
school work, is the bane of teaching literature. 
Do not attempt to be thorough in this 
work. Aim to do a few things well, but 
avoid being exhaustive. Do enough to con- 
vince your class of the boundless possibili- 
ties in the study of literature and then stop. 
Open the gate, teach them to recognize 
the guide posts, direct their attention to a 



12 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

few of the delights by the way, and leave 
them with the impression that they have 
entered a world of unexplored beauty 



1 



CHAPTER I 
Some Definitions of Literature 

It is necessary that there should be no 
ambiguity about the kind of literatiure 
discussed in these outlines. The schenie 
is designed primarily for teaching fine art 
literature in grades six to nine inclusive. 
With some modifications, such as an ex- 
perienced teacher or supervisor can easily 
make, the outlines may be made helpful in 
all grades from the kindergarten through 

the high school. 

(13) 



14 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

In "The Interpretation of Literature" 
Dean Crawshaw distinguishes four classes 
of writings. The third class comprises 
those writings that have a practical purpose 
and value, are permanently valuable to 
mankind in general, and possess in addi- 
tion a certain distinction of manner and are 
marked by certain qualities that make them 
interesting independently of their thought 
value. 

The foiirth class comprises those writ- 
ings that are of permanent value to man- 
kind in general, have the requisite distinc- 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 15 

tion of manner, and have as their dominant 
purpose and spirit, not to instruct or in- 
form, but to move the soul by their impres- 
siveness, beauty and power. Literature 
in this latter sense is defined as "the con- 
crete embodiment of ideal beauty in human 
speech". "Ideal" here means that it is 
the product of the imagination. 

The following outlines are intended 
primarily to apply to this fourth class of 
literature. But they may be helpful also 
in teaching such masterpieces as Burke's 
Orations and Lincoln's " Getty sbtirg Ad- 



16 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

dress", which should be classed in Dean 
Crawshaw's third division because of 
their practical purposes. 

It is most helpful to the teacher, however, 
to think of literature as an . inspirational 
interpretation of lije through the medium 
of written language, as this indicates what 
should be the dominant aim of the teacher. 
She should teach literature in such a way 
that the children will feel its inspiration. 
Some say that the distinguishing aim of 
literature is to amuse or entertain. These 
words are too small, they imply something 



THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE 17 

superficial and transient. Mark Twain 
does more than amuse. He stimulates 
an abiding attitude toward life. Inspire 
is the word. The aim is to give such 
fullness of motive that even drudgery shall 
have a certain thrill. 

Nothing more fundamental or more far 
reaching can be done in the training of 
citizens than to establish in them an abid- 
ing conviction that life is well worth living 
and to stimulate a passion for getting the 
most out of it. This is the province of 
the teacher of literature. Other teachers 



18 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

must train them in arts of living in a phy- 
sical world and help them to verify the 
ideals derived from literature. No citizen 
is equipped for success without the two 
kinds of training. 

Matthew Arnold says that the poet 
answers the question, how should we live. 
No! He is not primarily concerned with 
this. The attempt to make the poet 
answer this question has been the fatal 
error of many teachers. The function of 
the scientist is to answer the question, 
what is lifel The function of the artist, 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 19 

whether poet, painter, or musician, is to 
answer the question, what is life wortht 
The function of the preacher, teacher, and 
judge is to answer the question, how should 
we live'^ Bryant says, "So Hve, etc.", 
but what he says is altogether a passionate 
expression of the love of life. It is not a 
rule of action. 

For other definitions see the following: 

Worsfold — The Principles of Criticism, 

page 158. Longmans 

Winchester — Principles of Literary 
Criticism, pages 38-41. MacMillan 



CHAPTER II 

ANALYZING A LITERARY MASTERPIECE PRE- 
PARATORY TO TEACHING IT 

A. Content Elements 
I The Thought Element 

1. What is the main theme or central 
thought ? 

2. Outline the whole thought move- 
ment. 

II The Emotional Element 

1. What is the dominant emotional 

element ? 

(20) 



THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE 21 

2. What minor emotional elements 
are involved ? 

3. Regarding the interplay of emo- 
tions : 

a. In any one character what is the 

(1) relation of minor to domi- 
nant emotional elements ? 

(2) interrelation of minor emo- 
tional elements ? 

h. In different characters what are 
the 

(1) contrasted emotional ele- 
ments ? 



22 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

(2) supplementary emotional ele- 
ments ? 

4. Trace the development of emotional 
elements. 

5. Indicate the effects of the emotional 
elements. 

6. What is the relation of the emo- 
tional elements 

a. to the author's personality? 
h. to other personalities? 
Ill The Imaginative Element. 

1. What are the major elements of 
imagination — the whole vision in the 
perspective ? 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 23 

2. What are the minor elements of 
imagination? 

3. What is the relation between the 
minor and the major imaginative 
elements ? 

4. What is the relation of the minor 
imaginative elements to the major 
imaginati^-e elements? 

5. What is the relation between the 
imaginative and the thought ele- 
ments ? 

6. What is the relation between the 
imaginative and the emotional ele- 
ments ? 



24 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

7. What are the elements of produc- 
tive (constructive) imagination ? 

8. What are the elements of associative 
imagination — the association of 
objects, ideas, or experiences emo- 
tionally akin ? 

Example — Shelley's Skylark, 1. 31-60. 

9. What are the elements of penetra- 
tive (interpretative) imagination — 
transporting the reader from his 
own point of view to that of some 
other object or creature from which 
point of view the reader gets a more 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 25 

sympathetic understanding of the 
object and a more penetrative in- 
sight into its nature and circum- 
stances ? 

Examples : Shelley's Skylark, 1. 14-15 
**Now thou's turned out, 

for a' thy trouble, 
But house or hald. 
To thole the winter's sleety 

dribble 
An crancreuch cauld!" Burns 
10. What abstract or elusive qualities 
are forced into consciousness in such 



26 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

a way as to command exclusive at- 
tention? 

Example: 

"Gladness of woods, skies, waters, all 
in one." Lowell. 

''Bright flower \ for by that name 
at last, 

When all my reveries are past, 

I call thee and to that cleave fast, 

Sweet, silent creature!" 

Wordsworth 

11. What are the relations between 
imaginative (fictional) and real 
(fact) elements ? 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 27 

IV The Aesthetic Elements. 

1. What are the major aesthetic ele- 
ments ? 

2. What are the minor aesthetic ele- 
ments? 

3. Are any of these contrasted or sup- 
plementary ? 

4. To what extent is the appeal of the 
aesthetic elements to the physical, 
intellectual or spiritual nature? 

5. Is any unpleasant element found.? 

B Form Elements 
I Style. 



28 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

1. Intellectual qualities. 
a. Are there errors of grammar, 
rhetoric or spelling? Are there 
artistic reasons for these? 



h. Is the language clear? 



c. Is the language simple? 

d. Are these qualities most promi- 
nent in thought passages? 

2. Emotional qualities 

a. Are the words chosen and ar- 
ranged to express strong feelings, 
impulses, determination, or con- 
viction? 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 29 

b. Is the language in any way es- 
pecially adapted to expressing 
melancholy, pity, grief, or des- 



pair? 



c. Is there anything in the style 
which makes it humorous? 
3. Imaginative qualities 

a. Is the language especially adapt- 
ed to making an intense or vivid 
appeal to the senses? 

b. Is it intended to interpret facts 
or give the secrets of life and 
nature by making appeals to 



30 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

subtle associations of thought and 
feeling, transporting the reader 
to a new point of view, or stimu- 
lating a powerful focusing of at- 
tention on elusive or abstract 
qualities of some object or situa- 
tion? What are the peculiarities 
of language by which these things 
are accomplished? 
4. Aesthetic qualities. 

a. What passages have an especially 
pleasing succession of vowel and 
consonant sounds? Does this 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 31 

help to make the substance ap- 
peal to the aesthetic sense? 

b. Are the selection and arrange- 
ment of words intended to ac- 
complish an adaptation of sound 
to sense? Example: "The Bells" 
by Poe. 

c. Is there anything in the style 
whereby it is especially appro- 
priate to "the writer, the subject, 
the occasion, the sensibilities of 
the reader," etc. 

II Metre 



32 THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE 

1. Its relation to the content. 
Ill Structure 

1. Its value in suggesting the frame- 
work of the content. 
C Arrangement and Relationship of 

Parts 
I Contrast and variety 

1. In form. 

2. In content. 

3. Their artistic value. 

II Is there a climax or are there several 
climaxes, summaries or denouments? 
1. Their effects upon the content 
elements. 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 33 

2. How much do they assist us in 
appreciating and interpreting the 
content? 

3, Their effects upon the elements of 
form. 

Ill Unity 

1. In thought — ^logical sequence. 

2. In emotional element. 

a. Are the characters consistent in 
their emotional natures and de- 
velopment ? 

h. Are the intensity and kinds of 
emotion in keeping with the 



34 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

objects, thoughts or situtations 
which excite them? 
c. Are the effects of the emotions 
in determining conduct or destiny 
of character adequate and natural ? 
3. In the imaginative element. 

a. Are the various groups of charac- 
ters and elements of plot woven 
together in a natural way? 

b. Are the descriptive backgrounds 
in keeping with the actions, e- 
vents, or objects which make up 
the center of attractions? 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 35 

4, Unity in the aesthetic element. 

a. Are the kinds and degrees of 
beauty in the characters, objects, 
plot, emotions, thought, etc., con- 
sistent with themselves and with 
each other and are they properly 
sustained? 

5. Unity in the interrelation between 
the various elements of content and 
form. 

a. What relation between the nature 
of the country described and the 
people who live in it? 



36 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

b. What relation between the physi- 
cal, spiritual, and intellectual 
elements of the characters? Are 
they consistent? 

c. Is the outcome of the plot consis- 
tent with the relative powers, and 
prominence of the characters and 
other forces in the masterpiece? 

d. Is the framework of the thought 
consistent with the development 
and outcome of the plot? 

e. Are the thoughts, emotions, ac- 
tions, and events properl}^ related 



THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE 37 

as to cause and effect? Do they 
contribute harmoniously to the 
complete result? 
/. Is the form appropriate to the 
content ? 

6. Unity in contrast and variety. 

a. Do these qualities as found in the 
elements of form and content 
tend to divert and scatter atten- 
tion or to centralize it? 

7. Unity in climax and close of master- 
piece. 

a. Is the movement toward a climax 



38 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

and close of the masterpiece pro- 
perly progressive? Any unneces- 
sary delays or interruptions? 
b. Does the closing of the master- 
piece adequately dispose of all 
elements? 
That the teacher should regard the unity 
of a literary masterpiece when she teaches 
it, is vital to her success. Many, many 
failures are made because the teacher does 
not do this. For instance in teaching 
Burns's poem **To a Mouse" a teacher 
should interest a class in the author's life 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 39 

on the farm. But to add to this a disserta- 
tion on his vices and his life in Edinborough 
will be nearly fatal to success. In teaching 
the "Cotter's Saturday Night," the author's 
boyhood should be discussed, but to bring 
in his disloyalty to his own wife and chil- 
dren would hopelessly counteract all efforts 
to achieve desired results. The same kind 
of error is often made by indulging in long 
pedantic discussions of allusions which 
might be explained in a sentence. It is 
an easy thing to over-develop or empha- 
size a minor thought or imaginative pro- 



40 THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE 

duct and fail properly to magnify more 
important elements. In mathematics or 
science such a blunder may be repaired; 
but literature is peculiar in that a serious 
error of that kind can seldom be remedied 
until several years later. 

D Kinds of Literature* 



Descriptive 

Descriptive 
Poetry 

Descriptive 
Prose 



Poetry 
Prose 



Narative 


Subjective 


Dramatic 


Epic 

Ro- 
mance 


Lyric 

Essay 


Drama 
Novel 



In narrative everything is subordinate 
to a thrilling or interesting series of related 



*From Prof. Crawshaw's Interpretation of Literature. 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 41 

events. These events have in them the 
spirit of the time, place, and institutions 
which they represent or interpret. 

In subjective literature, the author 
expresses his own thoughts and feelings 
directly, and his character and life be- 
come a very essential part of the real 
element. 

In dramatic literature, the dominant 
aim is to set forth a section of human life 
and let it reveal itself through action and 
dialogue. The drama sets forth the rela- 
tion between destiny and character. 



42 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

Descriptive literature is always accessory 
to one of the other kinds and its purpose 
is subordinate. 

These various types are usually more 
or less blended and the teacher must 
treat each masterpiece according to its 
natiu-e. So far as it is subjective, study 
it as an expression of the author's own 
life and character. So far as it is dramatic, 
study the section of life set forth and the 
portrayal and development of character. 
Treat narration and description according 
to their importance in the masterpiece. 



CHAPTER III 
Teaching a Literary Masterpiece 

It must be understood that the previous 
outline is to aid the teacher in making her 
own analysis of the selection and is not a 
method for teaching the selection to child- 
ren. The teacher's own point of view 
will be somewhat different from that of 
her class. She will study it somewhat as 
a critic, interested in the artist and his 
processes. For the teacher this will not 

lessen the enjoyment of the selection. 
(43) 



44 THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE 

But the average grammar school or high 
school pupil is not interested in that. He 
does not wish to be conscious of the artist 
or any of his schemes. He wishes to enjoy 
the thrill of the story, the vividness and 
beauty of the pictures, the clash of the 
emotions, the intellectual contest, the mys- 
tery, the eloquence, and the music, the tri- 
umph of right and the defeat of wrong. Do 
not make the study of literature a study of 
the art of narration nor of exposition nor 
of anything except the art of enjoying a 
masterpiece and absorbing its inspiration. 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 45 

When you teach high school students the 
art of narration use history, biography, or 
newspaper articles as models. When you 
teach exposition use scientific or political 
articles found in standard reference works 
or in good magazines. But leave fine art 
literature to he taught as an inspirational 
interpretation of life. 

A lady who is a good dancer follows the 
lead of her partner, so a good teacher of 
literature will follow the lead of the author. 
Adopt the author's aim, point of view and 
method and cooperate with him. An 



46 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

author of an artistic masterpiece never 
aims to teach narration, nor exposition, 
nor versification, nor literary criticism. 
He aims to reconstruct a section of life 
in such a way that its inspiring aspects 
will be evident. It is the teacher's business 
to assist in accomplishing this aim. If he 
introduces any other aims he is assuming 
the prerogatives of the author, killing 
time, stifling interest, and creating general 
confusion. 

Literature shows the beauties of the 
adaptations of nature; the nobility and 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 47 

romance of common life; the stress and 
strain and the grandeur of great historic 
epochs; the joy of triumph in all condi- 
tions of life — on the farm, in the shops, in 
the mines, in social life, in commercial life, 
in the inner spiritual struggle. Literature 
should be so taught as to interpret all 
these from the point of view of their great- 
est worth and should result in inspiring 
students to lay hold of the problems, duties, 
and opportunities of life with a more sus- 
tained* zest and with more of that high 
seriousness of which Matthew Arnold 
speaks. 



48 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

Reflecting on their strange meeting with 
the risen Savior, the Disciples exclaimed: 
"Did not our hearts burn within us while 
he talked with us by the way and while 
he opened to us the Scriptures?" Such 
must be the result of the teaching of litera- 
ture. The children are to be inspired to 
yearn for greater revelations of truth, for 
deeper love; to pour out their sympathy 
and pity; to feel the rush of indignation 
and the flood pf patriotic zeal, an ardent 
admiration for achievement, a boundless 
love of life, of God, of man, and of every 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 49 

living creature, and a great optimistic 
belief in the future. 

The following questions regarding Shake- 
speare's Macbeth are bad if occurring very 
frequently. They are taken from a recent 
book on the method of teaching English 
classics. 

1, "Comment on the appropriateness 
of the first scene." 

2. "Note that this scene is valuable to 
us because it explains the situation of af- 
fairs in the realm. It particularly sets 
forth the valor and the loyalty of Mac- 
beth." 



50 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

The aim of these statements is partly 
good, but the form is bad because it directs 
the interest to the author rather than to 
the characters. A better form would be 
something as follows: State the situation 
in the realm as set forth in this scene. 
Name two essential qualities of Macbeth 
as a general. 

3. "Comment on the narrative skill 
shown in the sergeant's account." 

Instead of asking such a question as 
this could we not accomplish our aim bet- 
ter as follows ? Picture this wounded ser- 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 51 

geant as he tells his story. Picture the 
listening king and his sons. By such sug- 
gestions make the children feel that they 
are part of the dramatic situation. 

4. "What dramatic piirpose is served by 
making him a wounded sergeant?" 

5. "What artistic advantage is served 
by what Ross says." 

6. "Why not have Duncan summon 
Cawdor to the Royal presence and there 
pronounce his death?" 

These questions make the pupils feel 
that the characters are mere dummies or 



52 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

parts of a machine, and that to find real 
life we must go back to the inventor or the 
machinist. 

They create' a critical attitude and not a 
sympathetic one. They stimulate the in- 
tellect rather than the imagination. They 
haggle and slash a piece of literatiire as 
though it had no blood and nerves and 
spirit. When our friends bring roses to 
our hospital birth, we want no pedantic 
botanist to tell us how he cultivated them 
or to tear them into pieces to tell their 
structure. We want some gentler atten- 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 53 

dant to put them into cut glass and water 
them that we may enjoy their fragrance 
and their velvety, crimson freshness. 
When we are dispirited by the grind and 
drudgery of routine, we want no learned 
critic croaking about the mechanism of 
our beloved masterpiece. We want some 
gentle and sympathetic interpreter to 
charm our souls back to new life by her 
suggestive rendering and unfolding of the 
author's spirit. Even a good teacher of 
physics would arouse more interest in his 
machine than a teacher of literature who 



54 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

asks such questions as those quoted above 
would stimulate in a great literary master- 
piece. The teacher of physics would show 
how beautifully his machine would work 
and what it would accomplish for mankind. 
Avoid critical and fact questions. Such 
questions may occasionally be asked to 
advantage, but they should be rare. Ask 
stimulating, suggestive, interpretative 
questions. 

And so it is expected that, in carrying 
out the following method, the teacher 
will thoroughly assimilate the masterpiece 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 55 

which she has analyzed and adapt her ap- 
proach to it to the interests, tastes, and 
experiences of her class. Teach the mas- 
terpiece, adhere to its central elements, let 
neither the life nor the skill of the author 
nor anything else divert attention from 
the heart of the masterpiece. 



CHAPTER IV 

OUTLINE FOR THE METHOD OF TEACHING 

A LITERARY MASTERPIECE IN UPPER 

GRAMMAR GRADES 

A Preparation 

Aims 

1. To prepare the minds of the class 
to receive the problems of the selec- 
tion with interest and with a fresh 
command of the general back- 
ground of facts. 

2. To create a sympathetic or har- 
monious emotional atmosphere. 

(56) 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 57 

II Method 

1. When possible present the prob- 
lems which the author set for him- 
self or met in the course of producing 
the masterpiece. Do not try to 
find final solutions, but rather aim 
to arouse interest. 

2. Put the class into possession of the 
facts or conditions out of which the 
selection was created — geography, 
history, nature, social conditions, 
religion, legendary or mythical 
background. 



58 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

3. Discuss the author's relations to- 
these conditions. 

4. Give a suggestive forecast of the 
way the author has treated his 
problems and materials. 

B Presentation 
I Aim 

1 . To help children get general impres- 
sions of masterpiece — its substance, 
form and arrangement. 
II Method 

1. Teacher read the selection or divis- 
ion of it or have the class read it 
for themselves 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 59 

a. Quality of teacher's reading im- 
portant — voice, expression, per- 
sonality, enthusisam, enunciation. 

b. As few interruptions as possible 
during this reading. 

2. After the reading have each child 
make a list of the words he cannot 
pronounce or of which he does 
not know the meaning. Teacher 
have a list of words on which she 
thinks the children will need help. 
Insist that children place words 
on left with nice margin and room 
at the right for a definition. 



60 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

C Association and Comparison 
I Aims 

1. To guide children in selecting dis- 
tinctly literary elements. 

2. To lead them to treat these ele- 
ments in such a manner as to enjoy 
them. 

3. To develop in children the power 
to enjoy literature without the aid 
of a teacher, 

4. To stimulate in children the whole- 
some, emotional and spiritual im- 
pulses, intellectual alterness, ana- 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 61 

lytical power, imaginative insight 
and sympathy, powers of vivid 
perceptions, and ultimately so to 
develop all these that they shall 
dominate children's characters. 
II Method 

1. Dictionary work. 

a. Have children write out from. 

dictionary the pronunciations and 

meanings of words in their lists. 

h. Teach class how to use guide 

words. 
c. Have whole class look up same 



62 THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE 

word at same time. Keep re- 
cords of best time and number of 
failures at end of certain number 
of seconds. 
d. Help children select appropriate 
meanings and pronunciations. 

2. Teacher and pupils together work 
out a topical outline. 

3. By questions and suggestions help 
the children to understand and ap- 
preciate the characters, events, de- 
scriptions, plot with its dramatic 
situations, emotions, thoughts, and 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 63 

the relation of each of these to the 
other elements. Reread brief har- 
monious or melodious passages to 
bring out beauties of style. Let 
class close eyes and try to form the 
picture while the teacher rereads 
vivid concrete passages. Induce 
class to struggle with the subtle, 
hidden meanings bound up in sug- 
gestive passages. Bring to bear 
upon this the experiences of the 
teacher and pupil and whatever 
facts were brought out under pre- 



64 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

paration. Before the reader can 
feel the force of the author's inter- 
pretation he must see the objects 
and have the experiences which the 
author saw and had as vividly as 
the author realized them. There- 
fore one of the chief aims of the 
teacher is to make these experiences 
vivid. Call attention to the definite 
characteristics of the sounds, sights 
etc. In studying some selections, 
children will enjoy suggesting pas- 
sages for moving picture films. 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 65 

Have in mind the elements of 
contrast and climax as means to 
making experiences more vivid. 

The kind of literature being 
studied will determine where to lay 
emphasis in this process. If the 
selection is dramatic, study charac- 
ter portrayal and development. If 
it is subjective consider it as an 
expression of the author's life. 

Beware of overdoing this process. 
Here is fine opportunity for the 
master workman, so to touch es- 



66 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

sentials that they are brought out 
in all their beauty and power, while 
minor matters are left for the pupils' 
own initiative. 
D Recapitulation or Generalization 
I Aims 

1. To unify and strengthen general 
impressions. 

2. To give the teacher an opportunity 
to test the efficiency of her work 
and discover any deficiencies to be 
repaired. 

3. To arouse children's sense of re- 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 67 

sponsibility for the work, that this 
may supplement their interest. 

4. To teach children that to enjoy 
feelings and impulses completely 
they must express them. 

5. To develop in children the power 
of accurate, easy, complete expres- 
sion. 

6. To develop ideals of good voice; 
enunciation; expression; and of 
graceful, pleasing, effective person- 
ality. 

II Methods 



68 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

1. Oral reproductions of incidents, 
descriptions, and oral explanations 
of problems of plot or characters. 
Oral quiz. 

2. Oral reading by pupils. 

a. Not necessary for class to read 
whole selection if it is long. Se- 
lect most interesting and literary 
parts. 

h. Before children read aloud let 
them read a page or two silently, 
to make sure that they have the 
content and pronunciation. Drill 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 69 

them briefly on the meanings 
and pronunciations of the words 
they have looked up. 

c. Have each passage attempted 
reread until you secure a good 
rendering. 

d. Teacher and class criticize read- 
ing for expression, fluency, enun- 
ciation, pronunciation, voice, 
position. Let the test for this 
be — Did you enjoy the reading? 
If not what fatilts prevented it? 

Make favorable as well as un- 



70 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

favorable criticisms. The best 
way to establish the details of the 
ideal for good reading is to direct 
attention to these qualities when 
exemplified in the children's read- 
ing. Put the children into an 
appreciative attitude of mind. 
e. Let child stand in front of the 
room and face the class ; weight of 
body evenly distributed between 
the two feet; body erect, head 
erect so that the voice carries, 
book lying in one hand and leaves 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 71 

turned with the other. Reader 
frequently look from book to 
audience. 

/. Teacher stand in the back of the 
room or at the side. 

g. Do not assist children in pro- 
nunciation while they are reading. 
Make them rely on themselves 
alone. Give all necessary sugges- 
tions and pronunciations before 
the child goes to the front to read. 
Sometimes it is necessary to in- 
terrupt to correct position or to 



72 THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE 

stimulate to better expression, 
but such interruptions should be 
brief. 
h. In trying to get good expression 
avoid taking punctuation as the 
chief guide. Ask such questions 
as these — Is this an exciting pas- 
sage? Did the reader make it 
so? Is it sad, thoughtfiil, happy? 
Did the reader bring out the 
proper quality ? The oral reading 
should be an adequate expression 
of the appreciative interpreta- 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 73 

tion developed under association. 
Pause, rate of reading, emphasis, 
quality of voice, and inflections 
are determined by the thought, 
emotion, imagination and beauty 
in substance and by the various 
elements of form of which punc- 
tuation is a very minor element. 
3. Written reviews. 

a. About once in five weeks. 

h. Caution children about penman- 
ship, spelling, neatness, margins 
and such other technical matter 



74 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

as they a<re supposed to know- 
about. 
c. Question on appreciation of lit- 
erary values, structure, characters, 
meanings of passages or pictures, 
setting etc. 

E Application 
It is to be observed that the processes 
ordinarily classed under the head of appli- 
cation have been dealt with already in the 
preceding steps. To the reflective teacher 
the reasons will be manifest. The under- 
lying idea of application is to use a 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 75 

general principle or power in executing a 
specific, concrete, practical task. The 
true application of the work done in litera- 
ture is to be found in the life of the child. 
In the literature class you develop certain 
impulses, ideals, attitudes toward princi- 
ples, tastes. It is difficult to manufacture 
class room opportunities for the free ap- 
plication of these elements of character. 
Oral reading by pupils is frequently 
taught as the all important part of ap- 
plication. This make-s oral reading the 
chief aim of teaching literature. This is 



76 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

a serious fallacy, as it subordinates the far 
greater aim of training the impulses, ima- 
ginative insight, and aesthetic powers. Oral 
reading by pupils should be considered 
as recapitulation. Considered in this way, 
it is a means, not an end. It serves to fix 
the appreciation of the hterary elements 
and to bring out their complete excellence. 
A child should not feel that" he studies a 
selection in order to read it well, but he 
must read it well in order to understand 
and enjoy it fully. 

The same fallacy is involved in teaching 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 77 

oral reproduction as application. A pupil 
should not be taught a literary selection 
just as material for oral reproduction. 
He should reproduce it in order that he 
may express the impulses, imaginative 
element, and aesthetic enjoyment and 
thereby fix and intensify his appreciation 
of all of these. These two fallacies are to 
blame for much of the dislike for literature 
which so many children develop. 

The oral and written tests might be 
classed as application, and yet they are 
not exclusively such. The aims for giving 



78 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

a test are (1) that the teacher may find out 
what the child knows, (2) to stimulate the 
pupil to review thoroughly, (3) to give the 
pupil a final chance to express to the best 
of his ability the best that he has derived 
from studying the selection: Now number 
(1) is application; but (2) and (3) are re- 
capitulation. 

The great aim of teaching literature is 
to develop certain capacities, and the only 
adequate application of these is to be found 
in the conduct of the pupil in life. All 
other forms of application are of very 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 79 

minor importance and are better treated 
under some other step. 

When teaching long poems Hke the Lady 
of the Lake, we must be guarded against 
prolonging any one or all of these processes. 
It will not be best to read all of such a poem 
without some interpretative, explanatory, 
stimulating questions and statements. 
On the other hand it is not satisfactory 
to take time to interpret fully each canto 
before reading the next. This retards 
the story too much. Some teachers have 
found it to work successfully to take up 



80 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

each of the first three or four cantos with 
rather thorough treatment; and then, in 
the remaining cantos, combine the first 
reading with a few brief explanations and 
suggestive stimulating questions. Each 
teacher must work out these adjustments 
of the scheme to suit the poem and class. 
Much may be done in the preparation 
step that will enable us to avoid delay 
after the poem has been started. 



CHAPTER V 
Memory Gems 

If literary selections are taught as mem- 
ory gems in the right way, it is a good 
practice. If they are taught in the wrong 
way, the practice is vicious. The essential 
thing is that the child shall retain his 
love and respect for the selection. Use 
about the same method as just outlined. 
Have a brief review during a part of every 
fifth, sixth or seventh lesson. These re- 
views should consist of oral reading by the 
(81) 



82 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

teacher and pupils. Let it be understood 
that this should be the best oral reading 
done. Have oral and written reproduc- 
tions of content and setting. Say very- 
little about verbal memorizing. Do not 
call the selection a memory gem. 

After spending ten weeks or so in this 
way many of the class will have the selec- 
tion committed. Let them recite it, always 
giving first emphasis to expression and 
adequate interpretation. Keep verbal 
memorizing subordinate. Never assign 
the memorizing of it as a task to any child. 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 83 

If some of the class are slow to get it, call 
on them several tim^es to read it orally and 
give its content orally and make no at- 
tempt to go further. Do not feel obliged 
to be thorough. 



CHAPTER VI 
Sight Reading 

Sight reading if properly done is an 
excellent practice. If the reader is made 
to feel that he is the goat whom all the 
class may pick at regarding some petty, 
pedantic technicalities, the practice had 
better be discontinued. If the class can 
be made to feel that the selection is an 
enjoyable one and the reader be made to 
feel responsible for helping the class to 
enjoy it, then the exercise is a ver}^ delight- 
ful one for all. 

(84) 



THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE 85 

In order to accomplish such results 
select a good story considerably easier than 
the regular reading. Let the teacher give 
the setting and read enough of the story 
to interest the children. Then let the 
children begin to read. The teacher should 
place on the board all words that will give 
trouble. Have the class pronounce them 
and give their meanings after the teacher 
has explained them. It is well to have the 
children give oral or written reviews of 
the part of the story previously read. A 
few stimulating, interpretative questions 



86 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

shoiild be asked. The teacher should read 
occasionally. If several of the children 
become so interested as to read the story 
in advance, select a new story. 

Sometimes it is well to vary the work 
by having the teacher read an entire story 
or read far enough to induce the children 
individually to finish it. The teacher can 
make this very stimulating by asking from 
time to time brief, suggestive questions 
about the probable unfolding of the plot 
and characters. 

Humorous selections are especially well 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 87 

adapted to sight reading. Don Quixote 
and Tom Sawyer will reclaim many a lost 
sheep of the sixth, seventh, and eighth 
grades. Is there anything equal to such 
books for establishing, restoring, or main- 
taining sympathetic relations between a 
teacher and her pupils? If a teacher 
cannot get a grip on her grade through 
these books, she may with reason begin 
to doubt her ability as a teacher. 



CHAPTER VII 

The Written Lesson Plan 

Forward 

Every lesson should be planned. This 
does not mean that every lesson should 
have the five formal steps. Perhaps two 
or three lessons (if you consider each reci- 
tation period the unit for one lesson) may 
be spent on one step. Nevertheless there 
must be a plan. It may exist only in the 
mind of the teacher, it may be written 

in a formal plan book; it may be written 
(88) 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 89 

in the margin of the text book; or it may- 
be scattered about, one fragment here and 
others elsewhere. But it must exist. 

The most essential element of a lesson 
plan is its aim. The most essential part 
of any pedagogical process is its aim. 
An observer or a critic must first find the 
aim of the lesson and estimate everything 
in accordance with its relation to that 
aim. The aim should be worth while. It 
should be definite. If there are several 
aims, they should have unity, coordination, 
subordination and logical sequence. In 



90 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

teaching liter atiire especially, they should 
be determined not by pet theories, doc- 
trines or caprices of the teacher, but by 
the purposes and essential elements of the 
master piece. The plan book should state 
the aim or the aims of each of the formal 
steps. 

The statements of aims in the previous 
outline are too general to be used in the 
plan for a specific selection. For instance, 
the first aim under preparation should be 
•made definite when the method is applied 
to a particular selection. We ought to 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 91 

State what problems the class are to be 
prepared to receive. In the second aim 
we should state with what emotions we 
would have them in harmony. 

Under presentation we should state 
what general impressions we wish the 
children to get. In The Skeleton in Armor, 
it would be the primitive daring, passion, 
democratic independence, the strength 
of style, the exhilaration from the energetic 
movement of the story when read orally. 

Under association in the teaching of The 
Skelton in Armor, our aims should be to 



92 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

help the children get into sympathy with 
the viking; to enjoy his boyhood adven- 
tures; to share the sting of humiliation 
before the prince; to feel the bold resolu- 
tion, the thrill of the daring flight, the 
triumph of being master of his own destiny 
and discovering a new land, the happiness 
of mutual love and sacrifice; the sadness 
and loneliness of the closing scene, the 
noble fortitude in facing danger and death, 
the triumph of the next life. We aim to 
make the pictures associated with each 
of the above emotions vivid in the imao:ina- 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 93 

tions of the children and to make the 
qualities of style keenly appreciated. 

Of course there is a limit to the fullness 
with which we can state our plan. After 
all, many details must remain in our 
minds. The teacher can avoid repetitions 
by referring to details previously stated. 
And finally, remember not to teach too 
exhaustively. Many treasures should be 
left to entice the children to return to do 
some independent mining. But some of 
the aims should be stated in definite detail. 
We must remember also that in our method 



94 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

many of the details can be taught by a 
few masterful strokes. 

Plan books should contain aim, prepara- 
tion, presentation, association, and recapit- 
ulation steps. 

Outline 
Preparation 

Under preparation step write method 
and matter. Under matter state the facts 
which you wish to have in the minds of 
your class before they read the selection. 
It may be that your preparation is intended 
to create an attitude of mind in your class. 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 95 

If this is the case, state the attitude of 
mind and any facts used to establish it. 

Under the method of preparation state 
how you wish to get your facts before the 
class or how you intend to arouse the de- 
sired attitude of mind. Perhaps you will 
do it by questioning, perhaps by illustrat- 
ing or stating facts. Give sample questions 
or statements. 

Presentation 

This includes the silent reading by the 
children or the oral reading by the teacher 
and the selecting of the words from the 
text. 



96 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

Under method of presentation the teacher 
should make an estimate of the time the 
class will require for silent reading. Give 
suggestions as to how you will conduct 
the process of having the children select 
the words from their reader. 
Association 

This step includes finding the meanings 
and pronunciations of the words, making 
a topical outline, and the interpretation 
of the selection. 

Under the matter oj association if a 
teacher would be strictly logical, she should 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 97 

give in the plan book the definitions and 
pronunciations of the words listed under 
presentation, but in order to avoid a du- 
plication of work, the teacher may write 
this out under presentation and omit it 
here. She should make a topical outline 
and show the important points to be 
brought out in the interpretation. The 
plan book should indicate here the most 
important pictures, suggestions, emotions, 
passages noted for style which the teacher 
wishes to treat. 

Under the method of association state the 



98 THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE 

points to which you wish to call the at- 
tention of the children in regard to dic- 
tionary work, or the points on which you 
wish to take note in supervising that work 
— ^indicate the time it should take a good 
student to complete dictionary work. 
State how you intend to proceed in getting 
children to make a topical outline and in 
bringing out the points listed under matter 
— give sample questions, indicate the order 
of development, etc. 

Recapitulation or Generalization 
This step includes drill on words, oral 
reproduction of substance of selection. 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 99 

general quiz on selection, oral or written 
examination, oral reading by children. 

Under matter of recapitulation the plan 
book should refer to the list of words 
stated under the matter of presentation. 
It should refer to the outline previously 
given for the oral reproduction of the 
substance; subject matter on which you 
intend to quiz; the pages to be read orally 
by the children. 

Under method of recapitulation the plan 
book should show how you intend to 
conduct the drill on the words ; the method 



100 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

by which you hope to induce or help your 
children to reproduce the substance of 
the selection, some samples of the ques- 
tions for the quiz; the way in which you 
intend to conduct the oral reading of the 
children. 



CHAPTER VIII 
General Conclusions 

The conclusion of the whole matter 
may be expressed in the following tests 
of efficiency. 

a Primary Tests. 

1. Ability of children to respond or 
react emotionally — ^intensity, ac- 
curacy, variety, balance, control 
and readiness of response. 

2. Power to grasp imaginative struc- 
tures and penetrative interpreta- 

(101) 



102 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

tions and to recall and express them 
— definiteness and completeness of 
images, arrangement and relative 
significance of details ; depth, fullness 
and subtleness of penetrative in- 
sight. 
b Secondary Tests. 

1. Power to analyze thought. 

2. Ability to understand and use the 
English language. 

Imagination and emotion are called 
primary not because they are of more 
value than the power to analyze thought, 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 103 

but because they are the elements which 
distinguish literature. Power to analyze 
thought is just as essential in history, 
science and mathematics, as it is in litera- 
ture. The estimate of the efficiency of 
both child and teacher and the grading 
and promotion of the child should be based 
on these primary tests. The class tests 
and examinations should deal mostly with 
the prime details or essentials. It is the 
special business of the literature teacher to 
mature the children as rapidly and com- 
pletely in emotional and imaginative powers 



104 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 

as the other teachers mature them in 
thought power. A child's progress in 
school should depend quite as much on 
his growth in powers of imagination and 
impulse as on the growth in powers of 
reason. Otherwise our schools will pro- 
duce a very unsymmetrical and unbalanced 
product. 

This is no work for a novice. If you 
think it is, just try to frame a set of ques- 
tions to test an 8th grade child's imagina- 
tive or emotional maturity, or plan to 
teach a poem so as to train these powers 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 105 

in an 8th grade child. It is a difficult 
task, yet not an impossible one. It re- 
quires method, training and experience, 
insight and skill. For these reasons the 
course in literature methods should be 
one of prime importance in a normal 
school. 

If it is worth while to take time in school 
to develop systematically the children's 
generosity, sympathy, self-respect, love of 
ideals, loyalty to principle, to stimulate 
in them a hungry soul as well as a hungry 
mind and a hungry stomach, to make them 



106 THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE 

something better than educated swine, 
then let us teach literature, for this is the 
mission in which it can render preeminent 
service. But if we are unwilling to have 
literature taught with such aims, then 
let us cast it out altogether; for it has no 
other mission which cannot be accom- 
plished just as well by some other subject. 
To claim that literature can compete with 
geography or science or history as an 
informational subject, or with mathematics 
Or a foreign language as a reasoning sub- 
ject makes the teacher a liar, enrages tax 



THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 107 

payers, and disgusts the children. There 
is no sufficient reason for having it in the 
curriculum, if we are to treat it as an 
informational subject or as a means of 
mental discipline. Doubtless it can do 
much along these lines, but it is a miserable 
perversion to make these aims dominant. 
Our Heavenly Father creates men of 
literary genius to inspire mortals to make 
the best of themselves and to get the best 
and the most possible out of life, to look 
up through drudgery and poverty, through 
wealth and power, through youth and old 



108 THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE 

age, through leisure and service, through 
nature and society, through all creation to 
spiritual mastery, to perfect manhood and 
womanhood, to complete fellowship with 
God. It is the mission of the teacher of 
literature to cooperate in this work. May 
the Great Father help us to be steadfast 
and competent. May it be our achieve- 
ment that through the public school all 
classes of men and women shall come into 
the vision of the poets, shall see the beauty 
of holiness and the sublimity of life. 



